Why study Art an Example by

Why study Art? Since high school, I have had a desire to pursue art; disciplines of my immense interest which not only enable me understand the forces behind socio-economic, political, legal, and environmental happenings but also offer a practical way of relating these factors to the day to day live activities. First, I made my decision to study arts in order to fulfill my dreams and acquire more knowledge that would enable me correlate my imaginations with the history of human existence and how man attempts to adjust to the ever changing world in quest for better life, security and social order (teachers, 2008) Need essay sample on "Why study Art?" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Secondly my decision was based on the desire to experience and get more insight on the multifaceted human cultural diversity and their roles in the contemporary society. My decision was also guided by the awareness that Art would enable me develop specific academic traits that are crucial in my quest to fully understand human behavior as exhibited in various scenarios and the deep pertinent issues that are essential, not only in understanding life, but in living fully (teachers, 2008). My journey into the world of art was also guide by the abstractness of the discipline where one freely expresses his/her opinion on a given subject and is not necessarily tied to a given established formulae of making inferences. In the study of art, one uses critique, images, movements, and songs to form an opinion and attempt to explain the sate of affairs, the causative agents and also offer viable alternatives solutions to a situation. Lastly, I had desire to specialize in a filed that would enable me employ my skills in empowering my peer and members of my society hence the decision to begin the journey that would eventually lead me to further studies in community arts. Art is therefore not only enjoyable to me but also allows me think critically and creatively. Reference Teachers. (2008) Art Page. Retrieved February 3, 2009.

Marshal vs. Martial

Marshal vs. Martial Marshal vs. Martial Marshal vs. Martial By Mark Nichol Marshal and martial are a pair of words that, perhaps aided by similar associations, are often confused. Marshal The first image that marshal provokes in one’s mind, at least for Americans, is likely a lawman of the Old West, but the word’s origin is hundreds of years older. The term comes from a Germanic compound meaning â€Å"horse servant.† (The first word in the compound shares its etymology with mare, the word for a female horse.) From this humble beginning, the word was later associated with the leader of a medieval nobleman’s cavalry and later became a military rank equivalent to general. (It is this meaning that speakers of British English are more familiar with, because this military rank persists in the United Kingdom and in countries with military traditions inspired by that country.) It was then adapted to civilian usage as a law-enforcement position, so that now, in addition to your run-of-the-mill federal marshals, there are fire marshals, who enforce fire-prevention ordinances, and air marshals informally also referred to as sky marshals who provide security on commercial passenger airplanes. (The latter terms became much more ubiquitous after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, when their numbers were increased significantly.) â€Å"Air marshal† is also a high military rank in certain air forces. In addition, the equivalent of a police chief in a large military unit is known as a provost marshal; the first word in that title, borrowed from French (and originally from Latin), is pronounced â€Å"PRO-vo.† Marshal is also sometimes used to identify a person in charge of a ceremonial event, though it appears more often modified to â€Å"grand marshal,† indicating the honorary leader of a parade. It is also a verb that means â€Å"to lead† or â€Å"to organize,† as in â€Å"The general marshaled his forces.† (Note that the preferred spelling for the past tense and other inflections is with a single l.) Marshal, influenced by the occupational surname Marshall (from an obsolete spelling), is often incorrectly spelled like the name. Martial Like marshal, martial has a belligerent background: It stems from the Latin word martialis, meaning â€Å"pertaining to Mars.† That Roman god, borrowed from the ancient Greeks’ similar god Ares (not to be confused with name of the Zodiac sign Aries, from the Latin word for ram), was the god of war, though he also had protective aspects lacking in his blindly bellicose Greek counterpart and was also an agricultural god. (He also gave his name to the third month of the year, the beginning of the season for both planting and campaigning.) Martial is used in the phrase â€Å"martial arts,† referring to disciplines for hand-to-hand combat ranging from Brazil’s capoeira to Israel’s krav maga to more familiar Asian practices such as karate and judo. It also modifies nouns in terms such as â€Å"martial law,† referring to extreme measures put in place by a government in times of national emergency, and court-martial (hyphenated as a holdover from its French origins), which refers to a military trial or a court in which a panel of military personnel presides over such proceedings. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:12 Signs and Symbols You Should KnowWhat to Do When Words Appear Twice in a Row10 Tips About How to Write a Caption

American Dream for Slaves, Indians, and Puritans Essay

American Dream for Slaves, Indians, and Puritans - Essay Example Over time, they establish their communities, and become a part of the cosmopolitan society of America. These people had dreams that pushed them to leave their original homes, and settle in America. In trying to analyze the truth in George Carlin’s comment, it is imperative to consider facts from such groups. In the colonial era, slaves, Indians, and puritans all had dreams; and this paper intends to examine the interpretation of these groups of the American dream. This paper will also consider the obstacles they encountered in their mission, and whether or not they pursued their course. Colonial Era In looking at American history, slaves were of African origin. They Africans could only be referred to as slaves, after they had been bough officially by a planter or an owner of a plantation. The first slaves arrived in America in the early 1500s1. Slavery was oppressive, and colonies with produce specialization relied heavily on slaves. The slaves had no rights, were not allowed to accrue wages, and they were given only what was enough for their survival. Slaves came mainly from West, and Central Africa. By 1700, the number of slaves in America was about 20, 000. The slaves were forcibly brought to America. Between 1700 and 1750, an additional 250, 000 people had been involuntarily brought to British to serve as slaves. At the time that Europeans arrived in America, there were between 10 and 90 million American Indians. This native population appreciated the resources that nature placed at their disposal. The respected it, and used it accordingly. When Europeans landed in America, the American Indians were accommodative of their visitors since they were fascinated by the tools they brought with them. As the number of Europeans grew, they wanted to conquer the land, and make it theirs. Though they tried to coexist with the Europeans, the American Indians were quickly overtaken by events. The Europeans took over the land, pushed them to the side, imposed thei r ideals on them, and became their rulers. The European governments laid claim on the land, and divided it amongst themselves2. The American Indians were even enslaved by the Europeans. The period between 1500 and 1776 is characterized, in American History, by the colonization of America by Europeans. Puritans were immigrants from England to America. The Puritans were established in America by 400 settlers. These settlers in 1629 began the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Their numbers grew in leaps and bounds, and by 1640, their population had reached 1640. They extended their region of coverage to Connecticut, Saybrook, and New Haven3. American dream As time went by, the African population grew to outnumber that of the whites. The African slaves bore children who were born into slavery. These children knew no other home other that the fields in which they worked. To them, slavery was their destined way of life, and some of them did nothing to go against this. But as time passed, some sla ves were able to earn enough to buy their freedom4. They turned around to become advocates against slavery. They convinced their fellow Africans who were still bound in slavery that there was a better way of life. Though brought in captivity, the slaves dreamt of freedom in America. The American Indians, being a people who had respect for nature, found themselves in the midst of

The baby boom generation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The baby boom generation - Essay Example Because advertisers are trying to gain the attention of their target consumer group, they work hard to depict the ideals of the society. If young and slim is attractive, they will work that into their presentation in as many ways as they can. If macho and hard is the current fashion, this, too, will be reflected in the way a product is marketed. At the same time, by changing the way they combine different types of visual clues, these same media outlets can help to redefine a culture, to make it more tolerant of ecological issues, for example, or to change the way a society views gender roles. Studies are utilized by advertising agencies to identify potential buying demographics. This information is then used to target specific markets and to learn about public attitudes, why they buy specific products and what sort of promotions would most appeal to their desires to purchase. To some companies, marketing is about generating sales, period. It is therefore surprising to discover how li ttle advertising is actually targeted toward the baby boom generation. Although our culture seems to worship youth above all else, the reality is that the baby boom generation, now entering retirement, remains a large and greatly viable market. Baby Boomer is the term used to designate a specific age group in American society, generally defined as those who were born between the years 1946 and 1964. The generation is named this in recognition of the ‘boom’ of births that took place immediately following the return of soldiers home from World War II (Jones, 1981). These individuals shared a number of experiences during their generation that serves to unite them, including the murder of a president, the first footsteps on the moon, the ‘rebirth’ of the ‘60s and the large-scale introduction of psychedelic drugs into the marketplace. The Civil Rights Movement occurred during many baby boomers’ early

Allocating a Scarce Resource Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Allocating a Scarce Resource - Assignment Example According to FAO Director-General Dr. Jacques Diouf, â€Å"agriculture is the number-one user of freshwater worldwide. The agriculture sector must take the lead in coping with water scarcity by finding more effective ways to conserve rain-fed moisture and irrigate farmlands† (FAO Newsroom 2007). As validated by Rogers and Wilson (2000), â€Å"irrigation represents by far the largest use of water in the state of Kansas†. In recognizing the need to conserve this limited resource, the state has outlined guidelines for an irrigation water conservation plan which aims to assist irrigators in preparing plans for water conservation in their respective local areas (Kansas Water Office, et.al. 2006). As properly identified by state authorities and by the farmers themselves, and by preparing said guidelines for water conservation for irrigation purposes, the local residents of Kansas have recognized the imminent danger of water resource scarcity and state water conflicts. The state recognizes the need to â€Å"curtail waste of water and ensure that water use does not exceed reasonable needs† (ibid). Three state agencies are closely monitoring water irrigation practices of farmers. These are the Division of Water Resources (DWR), the Groundwater Management Districts (GMD) and/or the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). In an important study conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Kansas Water Office, the effect of irrigation practices on water usage was determined. The results of the study revealed that despite increased efficiency in irrigation practices, water usage did not decrease or even increased significantly (US Water News Online 2006). Another study conducted by Perry (2006), â€Å"although irrigation water use for all Groundwater Management Districts showed no statistically significant trend, an apparently increased efficiency of center pivots irrigation systems with drop nozzles has allowed more water-intensive crops to be grown on  more irrigated acres†.

Cost Overrun in Construction Projects

Cost Overrun in Construction Projects Aim The aim of the dissertation is to identify and explore the various causes of cost overrun associated with construction projects. Objectives Identifying the main causes of the cost overrun in the construction projects through literature review. To identify the various measures of cost overrun in construction projects. To examine the affects of the cost overrun by analysing the case of a construction industry. Analysing the information from the literature review and case studies to provide further recommendation and suggestions to overcome the cost overrun effect. Research Methodology To achieve the above aims discussed above it is very important to do extensive research by studying books, journals, articles on internet. Qualitative method is the research method that will be the main research method used incorporating Observations Questionnaire Case studies Present dissertation the author has used two main research methods questionnaire survey, case studies. The author has prepared questionnaire with 18 questions and forwarded to 10 companies. The questionnaire survey provided valuable data that can analyse, useful for outcome of the research. The author has studied different case studies from India to identify various causes for failure of the project. Analysis on the case studies gives the idea of various measures to overcome cost overrun. Introduction Constructions are full of risks and include those that may relate to cost overrun, external commercial factors, design, construction and operation. In any construction projects the three primary factors that is time, cost and quality will be likely to subject to risk and uncertainty. This cost overrun can be minimised by the realistic estimation which can be anticipated from the experience and foresight. Managing project costs accurately and responsively is a challenging task for the design team, construction manager, builders and consultant. Effective cost management is dependent on following a consistent methodology, utilizing appropriate standards, concentrating efforts for maximum effectiveness and utilizing all the tools available. The major problem that arises in construction projects is that projects often overrun their cost estimate. This risk of the overrun of cost estimate occurs even with the projects where carefully constructed bottom up cost estimates completed to a very detailed level. In every construction projects the main problem where cost of the entire project is not getting most likely, is because of the usual way of constructing a project estimate at completion is that adding the estimates for all work breakdown structure components (WBS). By conducting a cost risk analysis provides a more accurate and realistic estimates of project costs. Chapter-2 2. Literature Review 2.1 Definition: The process of project of an infrastructure project when planned is the sponsoring department prepares estimates of time and costs or funds needed to complete the project. The expected date of the completion is also announced. But there will arise some different between the actual date of completion from the expected date. We define â€Å"time overrun† as the time difference between the initially planned i.e. expected dates of completion. Therefore, for each project we can define percentage time overrun as the ratio of time overrun and the implementation phase of the project. The implementation of the project is defined as the duration in which project is completed, i.e. the time between the date of approval of the project and the expected date of completion of the project. Similarly cost overrun is defined as the difference between the actual cost and the expected cost of the project. The actual cost is the cost that can be calculated only at the end of the project and the es timated cost is the estimated when the project is planned. The percentage of cost overrun is defined as the ratio of the cost overrun and the initially anticipated cost of the project (Ram Singh, 2009). According to Lewis and Atherly 1996 a delay may have the direct cost implications in terms of an extended construction period. In other words delay leads to the cost overrun and the extended time will have extra expenses or loses by both parties of the project. When a delay can increase cost and reduce profits then organizations will have more considerations on bottom line (Lewis and Atherly 1996) 2.2 Causes of Construction Cost Overrun The survey conducted by Iyer and Jha (2005), on the factors affecting the cost performance of Indian construction projects, including the extent of adverse climatic and economic conditions; unfavorable project specific attributes; top management support; monitoring; feedback, coordination, conflict and knowledge of the project participants; and reluctance to make timely decisions. Of these, coordination among project participants was found to be the most significant of all factors, having a maximum positive influence on the cost performance. Semple et al. (1994), examined causes of claims, delays and cost overrun on twenty four projects in western Canada. The study identified the following as critical factors that lead to cost overruns are (1) contract variations and extras, (2) disputes, (3) soil and site conditions, and (4) delays. The author stressed the need by the industry practitioners (clients, contractors, professionals) to pay maximum attention to the critical factors in order to minimize cost overrun risks. Chan et al. (1997), examined the principal and common causes of delays which leads to cost overrun in Hong Kong construction projects. The study identified the following factors (1) Poor site management and supervision, (2) unforeseen ground conditions, (3) low speed of decision making by project teams, (4) client-initiated variations and (5)necessary variations of work, as major cause of delay. Flybjerg et.al. (2003), pointed out to cost estimates as highly, systematically and significantly misleading. According to Flybjerg et al. (2004), the causes for the cost overrun in the construction projects is as follows (1) The length of the project in the implementation phase, (2) the size of the project and (3) the type of project ownership. According investigation carried by Assaf et al. (1995), on causes of delay in high rise building construction projects in Saudi Arabia, the most important causes are found to be as follows (1) Inadequate designs, (2) slow work progress on site, (3) late payment for completed works and (5) design changes by owners. Here from the above investigation it is proven that all these factors are caused by the lapses in human input factor. N R Mansfield et al. (1994), investigated and examined the causes of delay and cost overrun in Nigerian projects. The investigation identified the following factors that are attributed to the overrun are finance and payments arrangements, poor or in experience contracting management, material shortages or excess of the materials, inaccurate estimating, and overall price fluctuations The analysis according to Ram Singh (2009), has shown that there has been significant decline in the time and cost since from early 1980s in India. The investigation shows that major causes for the delays and cost overruns observed in India are deficient project planning process, use of inappropriate procurement contracts and faulty contract management. In regards to project type, the bigger projects are much more vulnerable to cost overruns. Ram Singh also stated that several kinds of organisational-cum-institutional failure also affect greatly to time and cost overruns. The studies conducted by Elinwa et al. (2001) on the relative contribution of human personnel parties to the projects time overruns and cost overruns in Nigerian Construction industry states that the contribution of clients, contractors and others were 62%, 32% and 6%. The study stated that on the government or private sector projects the delays were at 89% with irrespective of project size. The study also identified the important factors of cost overrun and time overrun are mode of financing, payment delays for the completed works, improper planning and project time and cost underestimation. Kaming et al. (1997), examined factors influencing constriction delays (time overrun) and cost escalations, in Indonesian cities. They identified project cost underestimation and project complexity as the main causes of project delays and cost overruns. Chan and KumaraSwamy had conducted a survey on the factors causing the delays in Hong Kong construction projects and had classified them into two groups: (1) the role of the parties in the local construction industry (whether client, consultant or contractor) and (2) the type of projects. The result shows that five major causes for the delays and cost overrun were poor site management and supervision, unforeseen ground condition, low speed of decision making involving all project teams, client initiated variations and necessary variation of work. Cost underestimation is the one of the main factors for the cost overrun in construction projects. According to the Flyvbjerg, (2003), the cost underestimation exists across 2 nations and 5 continents and it is global phenomenon. The explanation for the cost underestimation is in four types. Technical Psychological Economic Political Technical Explanation: Most studies in infrastructure projects that compare actual cost at the completion of the project and estimated cost at the initial contract explain as Forecasting Error in technical terms such as imperfect techniques, inadequate data, honest mistakes, inherent problems in predicting the future, lack of experience on the part of forecast, etc,. [Flyvbjerg, 2003]. Psychological Explanation: Psychological explanations attempts to explain biases in forecasts by a bias in the mental makeup of the project promoters and forecasters. Politicians may have a Monument Complex engineers like build things, and local transportation officials sometimes have the mentality of empire builders in building roads, railways and bridges. The most common psychological explanation is probably â€Å"appraisal optimism†. According to this explanation, promoters and forecasters are held to be overly optimistic about the project outcomes in the appraisal phase, when the projects are planned and decided. [coated in Flyvbjerg, 2003]. Political Explanation: Political explanations construe cost underestimation in terms of interests and power (Flyvbjerg, 1998). According to Flyvbjerg, 2003, one of the key questions for political explanations is whether forecasts are intentionally biased to serve the interests of project promoters in getting projects started. Cost estimation cannot be explained by the errors and seems to best explained by strategic misrepresentation i.e., lying. These questions of lying are notoriously hard to answer. For legal, economic, moral and other reasons, if promoters and forecasters have intentionally fabricated a deceptive cost estimate for a project to get it started, they are unlikely to tell the researchers and others that this is the case. Economical Explanation: Economic explanations say that cost underestimation in terms of economic rationality. Flyvbjerg, 2003, in his journal stated that there exist two types of economic explanation. One explains in terms of economic self-interest, the other in terms of public interest. In case of the economic self -interest, during the process of the project it creates the work for the engineers and construction firms, and many stakeholders who are directly or indirectly attached with the project make money. These stakeholders in directly involved in would influence the forecasting process of the project, which in turn influence the outcomes the ways that make it more likely that the project will be built. Stakeholders would likely increase in their revenues and profit by having the cost underestimation and benefits over estimation which would be economically rational for such type of stake holders. In case of the second term public interest, project promoters and forecasters may intensively underestimate cost in order to provide public officials with an incentive to cut costs and thereby to save the publics money. According to this type of explanation, the more cost estimate is the incentive of the wasteful contracts to spend more of the tax payers money. Hence the both types of the economic explanation account well for the systematic underestimation of the costs. Several researchers on the subject of construction cost overruns have come out with significant findings that factors that leads to time overrun (construction delays), will eventually leads to cost overrun. From the above literature it is also found that the size of the construction project is also one of the main reasons which influence the cost overrun. The researchers stated that the main factor leading to delays have been always studied alongside those leading to cost overrun. 2.3 Cost overrun in India Background Cost overrun is becoming common in infrastructure projects. Through the various analyses it is found that the time delay and the cost overrun are the main reasons for the poor project performance. Morris and Hough found 63% of 1778 different types of projects funded by the World Bank between 1974 and 1988, experienced significant cost overrun. kamrul Ahsan and Indra Gunawan, (2008), in studies conducted on the time and cost performances in Asian countries had found out only few projects i.e. 13% are completed within time and budgeted cost. In contrast more projects are time delay and cost over run on an average amount of over spending U.S. $73million, i.e. 22% average planned cost. The case study conducted by the Standish group (2004) for IT projects the has found that the average cost overrun was 43%, 71% of projects were over budget, over time and under scope and the total waste was estimated at U.S. $5 billion per year in U.S.A alone. In-accuracy in cost estimates is also one of t he main factors for the cost overrun in the construction projects. According Flyvbjerg (2002), the under estimation of costs in construction were almost 9 out 10 projects. For randomly selected projects, the likelihood of actual costs being larger than estimated cost is 86%. The likelihood of the actual costs for the construction projects is being lower than or equal to estimated cost is 14%. The actual cost of the projects on average is 28% higher than the estimated cost. The best example for the above case is Suez Canal was constructed at costs three times of the estimated cost with 1,900 percent (Flyvbjerg et al, 2002). The Kakkad hydro -electric projct could be commissioned in time in 1986 itself, 8 years after its construction started. Accounting for general price inflation during this period , thecapital cost of this project by 1986 would be atmost only rs 39.66 crores, savings as much as Rs. 113.86 crores, almost enough to construct 3 more similar plant, or to add to the syst em capacity y another 140 MW at the nominal cost of Kakkad project in Kerala (Kannan and pillai 2001). The ultimate motive in undertaking the project is to make profit. These profits may be measured in different ways and the most familiar profit is money. The goals of the others in making the project may be to make work, to improve living standards, in produce of the products to the others who require it or in scarce, to obtain votes for the political carrier and many others. The ultimate result should be the positive outcome during the construction of the project or in the life of the project. Every project has to undergo several stages starting from the planning of the project, approval, awarding the project to the actual construction and so on. The project life cycle has been divided into three phases they are development phase, construction phase, and operation and maintenance phase. For every project during the development phase the project authority will approves the time and funds needed for the completion of the project. Then after the approval of the project the construction phase will start with the signing of a contract between the sponsoring department and the contractor. Generally the contractor of the project will be selected through the tender or bidding process. For some projects contractor will be for only procurement process. During the construction phase it is very important for the timely completion of the project, so there should be the active cooperation between the sponsoring authority, the contractor and other departments. The project success i.e. wh ether the project can be delivered on time and on cost depends on how well all the activities of the projects, departments of the projects and individuals concerned are coordinated. The failures among the contractor activities will cause delays in the project and cost overruns. For the ease of exposition, it is helpful to divide the set of possible causes in the following subgroups (Ram Sing, 2009). 2.3.1. Technical and Natural Factors: It is a complex problem for the estimation of the time and cost for an infrastructure projects, though the techniques for the estimation have been sophisticated there are many imperfect estimations. The contractors and the authorities of the project will better understand about the materials requirement and the necessary changes in the project as the work on the project starts. For example, during the construction phase of the road project, an unexpectedly poor quality of soil may make the changes in the design and quality of the bitumen, from what was initially planned. Because such changes the project may require extra time as well as funds. But in some cases the sudden changes may turn in favor of the project and the parties may find the excessive funds and time. Similarly natural factors like floods and so on also impact the cost and time and as well as destroy the project assets. The natural factors also make favorable conditions in saving the construction time and cost. However , one would expect the effects of the technical and natural factors to be random without any bias. Also form the above discussions the time delay and cost overrun is expected to come down over the years. Therefore if the decline in the time delay and cost overrun is expected to be statistically significant, we attribute the decline to the technical and natural constraints. Time and cost overrun. Hence, the Design changes, unforeseen geological and weather condition during the construction phase are the major causes of the cost overrun. (Ram Singh, 2009) 2.3.2 The Contractual Failures. As explained earlier the contractor enters the project mostly through bidding in implementation or construction phase by signing the contract with the sponsoring department. Thus for a project to be successful, mostly depends on the implementation of the activities by contractor and the joint and timely efforts of the sponsoring authority and the contractor(s). The actual initial construction or procurement contract is signed between the employer and the contractor is on a particular date. The contract agreement specifies the activities that are performed and delivery of the goods at the project execution by the contractor. In general, contract known as â€Å"complete-contingent-contracts which can ensure that the project is completed on time and within budget. These types of contracts are assumed to give the each and every detail of the activities that are performed by the contractor in each possible case during the construction phase. But in real case scenario, however, this is di fficult to explain the every work which unfolds in construction phase during the initial phase of the contract. Moreover it does not explain the complete every relevant aspect of the project activities. The bounded relationship of the parties along with the technological constraints makes the contract very difficult in specifying the every aspect of the project till last detail, this is because of the nature of different states require different modifications in the assets to be built. This happens commonly for the contracts of the infrastructure projects because of its complex nature of the activities. Therefore the procurement contracts of the infrastructure projects will be incomplete nature. The need for the future works arises once when the contractors starts the work. For example, on a railway project it may be necessary to have more of manned-crossings or railway-over-bridges than were planned initially. These unplanned additional works requires more funds and also in some ca ses it takes more time. Therefore, from the above discussion the contract incompleteness is also a cause of the cost overrun in some cases. This contractual incompleteness increases with the increase in the project size. Bigger the project size the complexity also increases. As the complexity of the project increases it is very difficult to provide the each every detail in the initial contract. However the initial contract should be kept with less incomplete. A proper planning for the technical, materials and the activities aspects of the project can enable the parties involved in the project to make the detail initial contract properly and once the proper detailed initial contract is made the contractor may have the scope to make some allowance for the future works by keeping the initial contract with less incomplete. In contrast, the poor planning may lead to the bad estimation of the time and cost and so will be the initial contract. The process of project planning in India is in famous for its ad-hoc and lackadaisical approach. The detailed project reports and feasibility are prepared for the formality purpose and hence they are sloppy. This leads to the incomplete initial contract for the infrastructure projects. Thus this leads to sever problems for the complex projects, because, a lackadaisical planning will produces only sketchy estimates of time and cost. So, in these cases the initial contracts for the complex projects will inevitably omit many more detailed works of the project, which leads in cost overrun in the construction phase of the project. Neither the contractors nor the officials find these contracts are lack of details. From this the major cause which is leading to cost overrun in India is because of the contractual failures caused by the poor contracting processes and inferior project planning (Ram Singh, 2009). The example for the faulty planning techniques and construction made the cost and time overrun of the project in the Kerala state hydro project in kakkad where the leakage in the tunnel had costs the project extra 15 Lacks to repair the damage.( Kannan and pillai 2001). 2.3.3 Organizational failures: As discussed from the above literature, for the successful completion of the infrastructure i.e. timely and efficient execution the project should have active participation of the all parties involved in the projects and as well as among various ministries. However, the government sector projects are inherently weak in the desired efforts from the people involved in the projects. There will be conflicts at each and every stage of the project with the individual and the social objectives. The wages and rewards given by the government for the working organization are not as effective from the view point as a motivation. Therefore, the government infrastructure projects have to face many sources of failures within the organization. These projects mostly in need of the several other organizations joint effort. In India different departments are responsible for different projects. For example, project implementation of power lines, water lines, sewer lines and environmental clearances and other such activities are performed by the different departments. Execution of the activities is highly dependent on the timely and joint efforts of the department. However the interdependence of efforts is that it will be easy for one department to pass the blame on others. So the infrastructure projects particularly India is vulnerable to these inter-organizational failures. In the project implementation stage as explained earlier several departments were involved in performing there concerned role. After all, the activities like land acquisition, shifting of utilities, etc., are performed by the state government. This says that if the project is span across more than one state, the project has deal with particular department in each state. Therefore the project which is spanning more than one state will have more chances to inter-organizational failures. If these projects are statistically causes the delay in time and cost overrun, then the project which are spanning across mult iple states should experience the cost overrun and time delay. Most construction projects in government sector are Roads, Rail ways and urban development sector. The projects should need permission from the central and state government for the environmental clearance. When compared other sectors, these projects require more active cooperation of the several departments such as land acquisition, shifting of power lines, water lines, sewer lines etc. Hence the projects in these sectors are having more chances of the organizational failure. Thus projects in road, rail ways and urban development sectors will exhibits more time delays and cost overrun (Ram Singh, 2009). Kannan and Pillai 2001, in their studies on the cost and time overrun in Kerala Projects suggested that main cause of the cost overrun is due to the human resource management and labours strike. According to the Auti, et,al. (2008), there has been several changes which should be made to the quality and standards, personal interests, low transparency and corruption . This also suggests that changes should be made in government policy and the way public sector projects are carried out. 2.3.4 Economic Factors: In India the projects are located in some states and the economy of the state also impacts the cost overrun of the projects. That is the states having the good transportation facilities, power and telecommunication infrastructure to easily execute the project. This shows that project with more economic factors like good infrastructure will face less cost overrun and time delays and vice versa. The income level of the state will also affect the project cost and time (Ram Singh, 2009). 2.3.5 Inflation: The inflation is defined as the rate of increase in the price level of the materials than they are in an economy (Adamson, 1996). Thus because of the inflation the materials cost will be increased than they during the initial contract, thus increases the estimated cost of the project. The affect inflation may cause the loss in profit to the contractor and project overrun cost to the project sponsor by the nature of process and the return of the work undertaken during the construction process. For example the kakkad(Kerala, India), hydro electric plant which has the time overrun 13 years as in 1999, when it was finally commissioned, the cost escalation of this project was 725 percent over the above estimates i.e. 8 times more than the actual cost the author says the cost escalation of this project is because of the price inflation(Kannan and pillai 2001 ). 2.3.6 Quality of the materials The low quality materials cause higher construction costs than expected because of lack of standards in the materials. This results in the loss of materials and poor management system (Thungphanich, 1997). 2.3.7. Shortage in materials Shortages in basic materials like sand, cement, stones, iron and brick causes major delay in the construction. The non availability of the machinery at the right of the construction process is also major cause for the delay in the construction. The following table shows that the various sectors which went the time overrun and cost overrun in India. These are the delays and the cost overrun during the years April 1992- September 208 S. No. 2 SECTORS 3 Total no. of projects completed 4 % of projects with Time overrun 5 % Time overrun (as % of implementation phase) 6 % of projects with Cost overrun 7 Cost overrun as a %age of initial cost of all projects 8 % Projects with cost but not time overrun 1 Atomic Energy 11 90.91 84 27.27 84 09 2 Civil Aviation 43 90.70 60 41.86 -01 00 3 Coal 92 60.87 28 22.83 -17 03 4 Finance 1 100.00 303 100.00 133 00 5 Fertilizers 16 62.50 25 25.00 00 13 6 I B 7 100.00 190 42.86 09 00 7 Mines 5 80.00 45 0.00 -26 00 8 Steel 41 80.49 51 19.51 49 05 9 Petrochemicals 3 100.00 74 33.33 14 00 10 Petroleum 119 78.99 33 20.17 -11 03 11 Power 101 62.38 41 47.52 26 05 12 Health and Family Welfare 2 100.00 228 100.00 265 00 13 Railways 120 98.33 83 83.33 84 00 14 Road Transport 147 86.39 47 53.74 08 05 15 Shipping and ports 60 95.00 78 30.00 01 02 16 Telecommunication 60 90.00 109 16.67 -55 00 17 Urban Development 22 100.00 54 40.91 99 00 Total/Overall projects 850 82.35 56 41.06 21 03 Source: Ram Singh, 2009. 2.4. Measures for the cost overrun 2.4.1. Cost Estimates: For any project the most important aspect in order to meet the funds of the project is the cost estimation. Small misleading in the cost estimation will lead to the project cost overrun or under run. Kerzer (2006) have explained about the factors which are affecting the process of the estimation and which results in the faulty estimation for the construction. The factors such as Misinterpretation of statement of the works, Omission or improperly defined scope, poorly defined or overly optimistic schedule, inaccurate work break down structure, applying improper skill levels to tasks, failure to account of risks, failure to understand or account for cost escalation and inflation, failure to use correct estimating technique. The important aspect to be considered is that many of the above factors which are affecting the cost estimation of the construction cannot be found until and unless the cost control system is implemented within the project. Kerzer (2006) also explained various types of measures in estimating and their accuracy in the cost overrun, they are as follows. (1) Order -of-magnitude estimates: There is no necessary of any engineering data for these types of estimates. Hence they are prepared without any engineering data and mostly they are based on the past experience. The accuracy Cost Overrun in Construction Projects Cost Overrun in Construction Projects Aim The aim of the dissertation is to identify and explore the various causes of cost overrun associated with construction projects. Objectives Identifying the main causes of the cost overrun in the construction projects through literature review. To identify the various measures of cost overrun in construction projects. To examine the affects of the cost overrun by analysing the case of a construction industry. Analysing the information from the literature review and case studies to provide further recommendation and suggestions to overcome the cost overrun effect. Research Methodology To achieve the above aims discussed above it is very important to do extensive research by studying books, journals, articles on internet. Qualitative method is the research method that will be the main research method used incorporating Observations Questionnaire Case studies Present dissertation the author has used two main research methods questionnaire survey, case studies. The author has prepared questionnaire with 18 questions and forwarded to 10 companies. The questionnaire survey provided valuable data that can analyse, useful for outcome of the research. The author has studied different case studies from India to identify various causes for failure of the project. Analysis on the case studies gives the idea of various measures to overcome cost overrun. Introduction Constructions are full of risks and include those that may relate to cost overrun, external commercial factors, design, construction and operation. In any construction projects the three primary factors that is time, cost and quality will be likely to subject to risk and uncertainty. This cost overrun can be minimised by the realistic estimation which can be anticipated from the experience and foresight. Managing project costs accurately and responsively is a challenging task for the design team, construction manager, builders and consultant. Effective cost management is dependent on following a consistent methodology, utilizing appropriate standards, concentrating efforts for maximum effectiveness and utilizing all the tools available. The major problem that arises in construction projects is that projects often overrun their cost estimate. This risk of the overrun of cost estimate occurs even with the projects where carefully constructed bottom up cost estimates completed to a very detailed level. In every construction projects the main problem where cost of the entire project is not getting most likely, is because of the usual way of constructing a project estimate at completion is that adding the estimates for all work breakdown structure components (WBS). By conducting a cost risk analysis provides a more accurate and realistic estimates of project costs. Chapter-2 2. Literature Review 2.1 Definition: The process of project of an infrastructure project when planned is the sponsoring department prepares estimates of time and costs or funds needed to complete the project. The expected date of the completion is also announced. But there will arise some different between the actual date of completion from the expected date. We define â€Å"time overrun† as the time difference between the initially planned i.e. expected dates of completion. Therefore, for each project we can define percentage time overrun as the ratio of time overrun and the implementation phase of the project. The implementation of the project is defined as the duration in which project is completed, i.e. the time between the date of approval of the project and the expected date of completion of the project. Similarly cost overrun is defined as the difference between the actual cost and the expected cost of the project. The actual cost is the cost that can be calculated only at the end of the project and the es timated cost is the estimated when the project is planned. The percentage of cost overrun is defined as the ratio of the cost overrun and the initially anticipated cost of the project (Ram Singh, 2009). According to Lewis and Atherly 1996 a delay may have the direct cost implications in terms of an extended construction period. In other words delay leads to the cost overrun and the extended time will have extra expenses or loses by both parties of the project. When a delay can increase cost and reduce profits then organizations will have more considerations on bottom line (Lewis and Atherly 1996) 2.2 Causes of Construction Cost Overrun The survey conducted by Iyer and Jha (2005), on the factors affecting the cost performance of Indian construction projects, including the extent of adverse climatic and economic conditions; unfavorable project specific attributes; top management support; monitoring; feedback, coordination, conflict and knowledge of the project participants; and reluctance to make timely decisions. Of these, coordination among project participants was found to be the most significant of all factors, having a maximum positive influence on the cost performance. Semple et al. (1994), examined causes of claims, delays and cost overrun on twenty four projects in western Canada. The study identified the following as critical factors that lead to cost overruns are (1) contract variations and extras, (2) disputes, (3) soil and site conditions, and (4) delays. The author stressed the need by the industry practitioners (clients, contractors, professionals) to pay maximum attention to the critical factors in order to minimize cost overrun risks. Chan et al. (1997), examined the principal and common causes of delays which leads to cost overrun in Hong Kong construction projects. The study identified the following factors (1) Poor site management and supervision, (2) unforeseen ground conditions, (3) low speed of decision making by project teams, (4) client-initiated variations and (5)necessary variations of work, as major cause of delay. Flybjerg et.al. (2003), pointed out to cost estimates as highly, systematically and significantly misleading. According to Flybjerg et al. (2004), the causes for the cost overrun in the construction projects is as follows (1) The length of the project in the implementation phase, (2) the size of the project and (3) the type of project ownership. According investigation carried by Assaf et al. (1995), on causes of delay in high rise building construction projects in Saudi Arabia, the most important causes are found to be as follows (1) Inadequate designs, (2) slow work progress on site, (3) late payment for completed works and (5) design changes by owners. Here from the above investigation it is proven that all these factors are caused by the lapses in human input factor. N R Mansfield et al. (1994), investigated and examined the causes of delay and cost overrun in Nigerian projects. The investigation identified the following factors that are attributed to the overrun are finance and payments arrangements, poor or in experience contracting management, material shortages or excess of the materials, inaccurate estimating, and overall price fluctuations The analysis according to Ram Singh (2009), has shown that there has been significant decline in the time and cost since from early 1980s in India. The investigation shows that major causes for the delays and cost overruns observed in India are deficient project planning process, use of inappropriate procurement contracts and faulty contract management. In regards to project type, the bigger projects are much more vulnerable to cost overruns. Ram Singh also stated that several kinds of organisational-cum-institutional failure also affect greatly to time and cost overruns. The studies conducted by Elinwa et al. (2001) on the relative contribution of human personnel parties to the projects time overruns and cost overruns in Nigerian Construction industry states that the contribution of clients, contractors and others were 62%, 32% and 6%. The study stated that on the government or private sector projects the delays were at 89% with irrespective of project size. The study also identified the important factors of cost overrun and time overrun are mode of financing, payment delays for the completed works, improper planning and project time and cost underestimation. Kaming et al. (1997), examined factors influencing constriction delays (time overrun) and cost escalations, in Indonesian cities. They identified project cost underestimation and project complexity as the main causes of project delays and cost overruns. Chan and KumaraSwamy had conducted a survey on the factors causing the delays in Hong Kong construction projects and had classified them into two groups: (1) the role of the parties in the local construction industry (whether client, consultant or contractor) and (2) the type of projects. The result shows that five major causes for the delays and cost overrun were poor site management and supervision, unforeseen ground condition, low speed of decision making involving all project teams, client initiated variations and necessary variation of work. Cost underestimation is the one of the main factors for the cost overrun in construction projects. According to the Flyvbjerg, (2003), the cost underestimation exists across 2 nations and 5 continents and it is global phenomenon. The explanation for the cost underestimation is in four types. Technical Psychological Economic Political Technical Explanation: Most studies in infrastructure projects that compare actual cost at the completion of the project and estimated cost at the initial contract explain as Forecasting Error in technical terms such as imperfect techniques, inadequate data, honest mistakes, inherent problems in predicting the future, lack of experience on the part of forecast, etc,. [Flyvbjerg, 2003]. Psychological Explanation: Psychological explanations attempts to explain biases in forecasts by a bias in the mental makeup of the project promoters and forecasters. Politicians may have a Monument Complex engineers like build things, and local transportation officials sometimes have the mentality of empire builders in building roads, railways and bridges. The most common psychological explanation is probably â€Å"appraisal optimism†. According to this explanation, promoters and forecasters are held to be overly optimistic about the project outcomes in the appraisal phase, when the projects are planned and decided. [coated in Flyvbjerg, 2003]. Political Explanation: Political explanations construe cost underestimation in terms of interests and power (Flyvbjerg, 1998). According to Flyvbjerg, 2003, one of the key questions for political explanations is whether forecasts are intentionally biased to serve the interests of project promoters in getting projects started. Cost estimation cannot be explained by the errors and seems to best explained by strategic misrepresentation i.e., lying. These questions of lying are notoriously hard to answer. For legal, economic, moral and other reasons, if promoters and forecasters have intentionally fabricated a deceptive cost estimate for a project to get it started, they are unlikely to tell the researchers and others that this is the case. Economical Explanation: Economic explanations say that cost underestimation in terms of economic rationality. Flyvbjerg, 2003, in his journal stated that there exist two types of economic explanation. One explains in terms of economic self-interest, the other in terms of public interest. In case of the economic self -interest, during the process of the project it creates the work for the engineers and construction firms, and many stakeholders who are directly or indirectly attached with the project make money. These stakeholders in directly involved in would influence the forecasting process of the project, which in turn influence the outcomes the ways that make it more likely that the project will be built. Stakeholders would likely increase in their revenues and profit by having the cost underestimation and benefits over estimation which would be economically rational for such type of stake holders. In case of the second term public interest, project promoters and forecasters may intensively underestimate cost in order to provide public officials with an incentive to cut costs and thereby to save the publics money. According to this type of explanation, the more cost estimate is the incentive of the wasteful contracts to spend more of the tax payers money. Hence the both types of the economic explanation account well for the systematic underestimation of the costs. Several researchers on the subject of construction cost overruns have come out with significant findings that factors that leads to time overrun (construction delays), will eventually leads to cost overrun. From the above literature it is also found that the size of the construction project is also one of the main reasons which influence the cost overrun. The researchers stated that the main factor leading to delays have been always studied alongside those leading to cost overrun. 2.3 Cost overrun in India Background Cost overrun is becoming common in infrastructure projects. Through the various analyses it is found that the time delay and the cost overrun are the main reasons for the poor project performance. Morris and Hough found 63% of 1778 different types of projects funded by the World Bank between 1974 and 1988, experienced significant cost overrun. kamrul Ahsan and Indra Gunawan, (2008), in studies conducted on the time and cost performances in Asian countries had found out only few projects i.e. 13% are completed within time and budgeted cost. In contrast more projects are time delay and cost over run on an average amount of over spending U.S. $73million, i.e. 22% average planned cost. The case study conducted by the Standish group (2004) for IT projects the has found that the average cost overrun was 43%, 71% of projects were over budget, over time and under scope and the total waste was estimated at U.S. $5 billion per year in U.S.A alone. In-accuracy in cost estimates is also one of t he main factors for the cost overrun in the construction projects. According Flyvbjerg (2002), the under estimation of costs in construction were almost 9 out 10 projects. For randomly selected projects, the likelihood of actual costs being larger than estimated cost is 86%. The likelihood of the actual costs for the construction projects is being lower than or equal to estimated cost is 14%. The actual cost of the projects on average is 28% higher than the estimated cost. The best example for the above case is Suez Canal was constructed at costs three times of the estimated cost with 1,900 percent (Flyvbjerg et al, 2002). The Kakkad hydro -electric projct could be commissioned in time in 1986 itself, 8 years after its construction started. Accounting for general price inflation during this period , thecapital cost of this project by 1986 would be atmost only rs 39.66 crores, savings as much as Rs. 113.86 crores, almost enough to construct 3 more similar plant, or to add to the syst em capacity y another 140 MW at the nominal cost of Kakkad project in Kerala (Kannan and pillai 2001). The ultimate motive in undertaking the project is to make profit. These profits may be measured in different ways and the most familiar profit is money. The goals of the others in making the project may be to make work, to improve living standards, in produce of the products to the others who require it or in scarce, to obtain votes for the political carrier and many others. The ultimate result should be the positive outcome during the construction of the project or in the life of the project. Every project has to undergo several stages starting from the planning of the project, approval, awarding the project to the actual construction and so on. The project life cycle has been divided into three phases they are development phase, construction phase, and operation and maintenance phase. For every project during the development phase the project authority will approves the time and funds needed for the completion of the project. Then after the approval of the project the construction phase will start with the signing of a contract between the sponsoring department and the contractor. Generally the contractor of the project will be selected through the tender or bidding process. For some projects contractor will be for only procurement process. During the construction phase it is very important for the timely completion of the project, so there should be the active cooperation between the sponsoring authority, the contractor and other departments. The project success i.e. wh ether the project can be delivered on time and on cost depends on how well all the activities of the projects, departments of the projects and individuals concerned are coordinated. The failures among the contractor activities will cause delays in the project and cost overruns. For the ease of exposition, it is helpful to divide the set of possible causes in the following subgroups (Ram Sing, 2009). 2.3.1. Technical and Natural Factors: It is a complex problem for the estimation of the time and cost for an infrastructure projects, though the techniques for the estimation have been sophisticated there are many imperfect estimations. The contractors and the authorities of the project will better understand about the materials requirement and the necessary changes in the project as the work on the project starts. For example, during the construction phase of the road project, an unexpectedly poor quality of soil may make the changes in the design and quality of the bitumen, from what was initially planned. Because such changes the project may require extra time as well as funds. But in some cases the sudden changes may turn in favor of the project and the parties may find the excessive funds and time. Similarly natural factors like floods and so on also impact the cost and time and as well as destroy the project assets. The natural factors also make favorable conditions in saving the construction time and cost. However , one would expect the effects of the technical and natural factors to be random without any bias. Also form the above discussions the time delay and cost overrun is expected to come down over the years. Therefore if the decline in the time delay and cost overrun is expected to be statistically significant, we attribute the decline to the technical and natural constraints. Time and cost overrun. Hence, the Design changes, unforeseen geological and weather condition during the construction phase are the major causes of the cost overrun. (Ram Singh, 2009) 2.3.2 The Contractual Failures. As explained earlier the contractor enters the project mostly through bidding in implementation or construction phase by signing the contract with the sponsoring department. Thus for a project to be successful, mostly depends on the implementation of the activities by contractor and the joint and timely efforts of the sponsoring authority and the contractor(s). The actual initial construction or procurement contract is signed between the employer and the contractor is on a particular date. The contract agreement specifies the activities that are performed and delivery of the goods at the project execution by the contractor. In general, contract known as â€Å"complete-contingent-contracts which can ensure that the project is completed on time and within budget. These types of contracts are assumed to give the each and every detail of the activities that are performed by the contractor in each possible case during the construction phase. But in real case scenario, however, this is di fficult to explain the every work which unfolds in construction phase during the initial phase of the contract. Moreover it does not explain the complete every relevant aspect of the project activities. The bounded relationship of the parties along with the technological constraints makes the contract very difficult in specifying the every aspect of the project till last detail, this is because of the nature of different states require different modifications in the assets to be built. This happens commonly for the contracts of the infrastructure projects because of its complex nature of the activities. Therefore the procurement contracts of the infrastructure projects will be incomplete nature. The need for the future works arises once when the contractors starts the work. For example, on a railway project it may be necessary to have more of manned-crossings or railway-over-bridges than were planned initially. These unplanned additional works requires more funds and also in some ca ses it takes more time. Therefore, from the above discussion the contract incompleteness is also a cause of the cost overrun in some cases. This contractual incompleteness increases with the increase in the project size. Bigger the project size the complexity also increases. As the complexity of the project increases it is very difficult to provide the each every detail in the initial contract. However the initial contract should be kept with less incomplete. A proper planning for the technical, materials and the activities aspects of the project can enable the parties involved in the project to make the detail initial contract properly and once the proper detailed initial contract is made the contractor may have the scope to make some allowance for the future works by keeping the initial contract with less incomplete. In contrast, the poor planning may lead to the bad estimation of the time and cost and so will be the initial contract. The process of project planning in India is in famous for its ad-hoc and lackadaisical approach. The detailed project reports and feasibility are prepared for the formality purpose and hence they are sloppy. This leads to the incomplete initial contract for the infrastructure projects. Thus this leads to sever problems for the complex projects, because, a lackadaisical planning will produces only sketchy estimates of time and cost. So, in these cases the initial contracts for the complex projects will inevitably omit many more detailed works of the project, which leads in cost overrun in the construction phase of the project. Neither the contractors nor the officials find these contracts are lack of details. From this the major cause which is leading to cost overrun in India is because of the contractual failures caused by the poor contracting processes and inferior project planning (Ram Singh, 2009). The example for the faulty planning techniques and construction made the cost and time overrun of the project in the Kerala state hydro project in kakkad where the leakage in the tunnel had costs the project extra 15 Lacks to repair the damage.( Kannan and pillai 2001). 2.3.3 Organizational failures: As discussed from the above literature, for the successful completion of the infrastructure i.e. timely and efficient execution the project should have active participation of the all parties involved in the projects and as well as among various ministries. However, the government sector projects are inherently weak in the desired efforts from the people involved in the projects. There will be conflicts at each and every stage of the project with the individual and the social objectives. The wages and rewards given by the government for the working organization are not as effective from the view point as a motivation. Therefore, the government infrastructure projects have to face many sources of failures within the organization. These projects mostly in need of the several other organizations joint effort. In India different departments are responsible for different projects. For example, project implementation of power lines, water lines, sewer lines and environmental clearances and other such activities are performed by the different departments. Execution of the activities is highly dependent on the timely and joint efforts of the department. However the interdependence of efforts is that it will be easy for one department to pass the blame on others. So the infrastructure projects particularly India is vulnerable to these inter-organizational failures. In the project implementation stage as explained earlier several departments were involved in performing there concerned role. After all, the activities like land acquisition, shifting of utilities, etc., are performed by the state government. This says that if the project is span across more than one state, the project has deal with particular department in each state. Therefore the project which is spanning more than one state will have more chances to inter-organizational failures. If these projects are statistically causes the delay in time and cost overrun, then the project which are spanning across mult iple states should experience the cost overrun and time delay. Most construction projects in government sector are Roads, Rail ways and urban development sector. The projects should need permission from the central and state government for the environmental clearance. When compared other sectors, these projects require more active cooperation of the several departments such as land acquisition, shifting of power lines, water lines, sewer lines etc. Hence the projects in these sectors are having more chances of the organizational failure. Thus projects in road, rail ways and urban development sectors will exhibits more time delays and cost overrun (Ram Singh, 2009). Kannan and Pillai 2001, in their studies on the cost and time overrun in Kerala Projects suggested that main cause of the cost overrun is due to the human resource management and labours strike. According to the Auti, et,al. (2008), there has been several changes which should be made to the quality and standards, personal interests, low transparency and corruption . This also suggests that changes should be made in government policy and the way public sector projects are carried out. 2.3.4 Economic Factors: In India the projects are located in some states and the economy of the state also impacts the cost overrun of the projects. That is the states having the good transportation facilities, power and telecommunication infrastructure to easily execute the project. This shows that project with more economic factors like good infrastructure will face less cost overrun and time delays and vice versa. The income level of the state will also affect the project cost and time (Ram Singh, 2009). 2.3.5 Inflation: The inflation is defined as the rate of increase in the price level of the materials than they are in an economy (Adamson, 1996). Thus because of the inflation the materials cost will be increased than they during the initial contract, thus increases the estimated cost of the project. The affect inflation may cause the loss in profit to the contractor and project overrun cost to the project sponsor by the nature of process and the return of the work undertaken during the construction process. For example the kakkad(Kerala, India), hydro electric plant which has the time overrun 13 years as in 1999, when it was finally commissioned, the cost escalation of this project was 725 percent over the above estimates i.e. 8 times more than the actual cost the author says the cost escalation of this project is because of the price inflation(Kannan and pillai 2001 ). 2.3.6 Quality of the materials The low quality materials cause higher construction costs than expected because of lack of standards in the materials. This results in the loss of materials and poor management system (Thungphanich, 1997). 2.3.7. Shortage in materials Shortages in basic materials like sand, cement, stones, iron and brick causes major delay in the construction. The non availability of the machinery at the right of the construction process is also major cause for the delay in the construction. The following table shows that the various sectors which went the time overrun and cost overrun in India. These are the delays and the cost overrun during the years April 1992- September 208 S. No. 2 SECTORS 3 Total no. of projects completed 4 % of projects with Time overrun 5 % Time overrun (as % of implementation phase) 6 % of projects with Cost overrun 7 Cost overrun as a %age of initial cost of all projects 8 % Projects with cost but not time overrun 1 Atomic Energy 11 90.91 84 27.27 84 09 2 Civil Aviation 43 90.70 60 41.86 -01 00 3 Coal 92 60.87 28 22.83 -17 03 4 Finance 1 100.00 303 100.00 133 00 5 Fertilizers 16 62.50 25 25.00 00 13 6 I B 7 100.00 190 42.86 09 00 7 Mines 5 80.00 45 0.00 -26 00 8 Steel 41 80.49 51 19.51 49 05 9 Petrochemicals 3 100.00 74 33.33 14 00 10 Petroleum 119 78.99 33 20.17 -11 03 11 Power 101 62.38 41 47.52 26 05 12 Health and Family Welfare 2 100.00 228 100.00 265 00 13 Railways 120 98.33 83 83.33 84 00 14 Road Transport 147 86.39 47 53.74 08 05 15 Shipping and ports 60 95.00 78 30.00 01 02 16 Telecommunication 60 90.00 109 16.67 -55 00 17 Urban Development 22 100.00 54 40.91 99 00 Total/Overall projects 850 82.35 56 41.06 21 03 Source: Ram Singh, 2009. 2.4. Measures for the cost overrun 2.4.1. Cost Estimates: For any project the most important aspect in order to meet the funds of the project is the cost estimation. Small misleading in the cost estimation will lead to the project cost overrun or under run. Kerzer (2006) have explained about the factors which are affecting the process of the estimation and which results in the faulty estimation for the construction. The factors such as Misinterpretation of statement of the works, Omission or improperly defined scope, poorly defined or overly optimistic schedule, inaccurate work break down structure, applying improper skill levels to tasks, failure to account of risks, failure to understand or account for cost escalation and inflation, failure to use correct estimating technique. The important aspect to be considered is that many of the above factors which are affecting the cost estimation of the construction cannot be found until and unless the cost control system is implemented within the project. Kerzer (2006) also explained various types of measures in estimating and their accuracy in the cost overrun, they are as follows. (1) Order -of-magnitude estimates: There is no necessary of any engineering data for these types of estimates. Hence they are prepared without any engineering data and mostly they are based on the past experience. The accuracy

Good Style is a Reflection of a Writer Making Good Choices :: Writing Style Styles Essays

Good Style is a Reflection of a Writer Making Good Choices When putting pen to paper or typing on a keyboard in order to write something, a writer makes decisions. These decisions will result in what will be the writer’s finished work and will unintentionally reflect what the writer knows about writing style. In just trying to convey his or her ideas, a writer will follow rules of grammar and spelling as well as various advice accumulated through formal and informal education. If the writer has a good understanding of what they’ve learned, it will come out in their writing. After reading William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White’s The Elements of Style and Joseph M. Williams’ Style: Toward Clarity and Grace, I’ve learned that style is the culmination of many factors. Beginning in elementary school, people learn the basic, concrete rules of grammar. These aren’t so much elements of style as they are the foundation of writing. While necessary, a person can have perfect grammar but poor style. Many of the rules mentioned in the first chapter of Strunk and White, such as, â€Å"The number of the subject determines the number of the verb,† (9) are those that remain fairly rigid. If a writer didn’t follow this rule, and the number of subject and verb didn’t match for instance, the mistake would be glaringly obvious to the reader. Williams also discusses this toward the end of his book in a section titled â€Å"Real Rules.† Here, he includes rules such as not using double negatives and not substituting adjectives for adverbs (180). These rules are the building blocks of writing and that is why a writer would be looked down upon if he or she were to break them. Therefore, when writers break rules like thi s, it is usually to make a point by doing so. After these concrete rules, one begins to learn rules that are a little fuzzier in their application. These are rules that should be followed but can be broken given the right circumstances or if it is done systematically. For instance, Rule 14 in Strunk and White states, â€Å"Use the active voice.† What this means is using active verbs as opposed to inactive ones to prevent boring the reader.

Novel using Frankenstein as an Example Essay

However the horror itself needs to be complimented with one of the most important part your gothic novel, this being some form of a supernatural event or otherwise inexplicable event. This could include ghosts or giants walking, or inanimate objects such as a suit of armour or painting as recognised in Castle of Otranto † it fell crushing his limbs†. In the case of Frankenstein it can be explained but it still a supernatural event. â€Å"I had worked hard for nearly two years, for the sole purpose of infusing life into an inanimate body. â€Å", Shelley not only uses this as a main plot point to drive much of the issuing events, with in this case speaking in a sterile scientific manor, but also to shine light on some of the ethical issues of her time, mainly advancements in science and issues such as bring life back to â€Å"inanimate† tissues. It symbolises for her the fact that science could be taken to extremes, and the events after indicate this. These events are often preceded by a vision. You may want to use this before some form of death. In chapter 5 there are no real disturbing dream visions, a better example can be seen in other gothic novels, and I will used The Castle of Otranto, this includes the omen that â€Å"That the castle and lordship of Otranto should pass from the present family, whenever the real owner should be grown too large to inhabit it. † or any phenomenon that may be seen as a portent of coming events other than in some way or Victor’s dream of Elizabeth death. , an omen that it is soon to be his time to die while at every turn the women are put into distress and a epitomising the feel that all will happen in an almost omnipotent fashion will come to its end. This should be included into your novel in some shape or form to give it a more gothic feel overall and in many cases it relates to the supernatural events to come. Women should partake in two main forms to extenuate the gothic; firstly they should at some point during your novel be in some form of distress. It should contain an appeal to the pathos and sympathy of the reader, the female characters should face events that leave them fainting, terrified, screaming, or sobbing. A lonely, pensive, and oppressed heroine is often the central figure of a gothic novel, so her sufferings are even more pronounced and the focus of attention. This can be seen by the threat made to Elizabeth’s life through the dream in chapter 5. You could increase this more because the women are often abandoned, left alone (either on purpose or by accident), and have no protector at times. Elizabeth is left in Geneva alone with the monster (even if only in victors mind) wanting to hunt her down and kill her. You could use this to great effect and continue it to a degree that that the women should be threatened by or with the presence of a tyrannical male, this could range in your novel from a king, lord of the manor, father, or guardian, to demand that one or more of the female characters do something intolerable. The Monster howls in rage and utters the ominous words: â€Å"I shall be with you on your wedding night. † All the while it s rain outside with another choice to creating horror and suspense with metonym in the case referring to the darkness of the situation. Using threading tones and the fact that he â€Å"shall† implying that the wedding day will be in no way pleasant. The woman may be commanded to marry someone she does not love (it may even be the powerful male himself), or commit a crime. This bring about examples of the next gothic case in point with most of the book contain much overwrought and tense emotions which often are highly sentimental. This tool should be used to create various emotion ties with your protagonist and the reader, often in the case of gothic novels the sensation of impending doom and gloom, however it can also be used for exultant situations as well, as in Frankenstein chapter 5 with â€Å"I had desired it with an ardour that far exceeded moderation; but now that I had finished, the beauty of the dream vanished, and breathless horror and disgust filled my heart. â€Å", Shelley uses specific language such as â€Å"breathless horror† to symbolise the overwrought sense of disgust he felt, filling his heart suggesting that it not only hurt his senses but was a major blow to his spirit. However all of this means very little if you fail to adhere to one element that must be true if you aim is to create a truly gothic novel and the is vocabulary and syntax of the gothic writing; this is of the utmost importance The constant use of the appropriate vocabulary to set creates the atmosphere of the gothic. This includes â€Å"I took refuge in the courtyard belonging to the house which I inhabited; where I remained during the rest of the night, walking up and down in the greatest agitation, listening attentively, catching and fearing each sound as if it were to announce the approach of the demoniacal corpse to which I had so miserably given life. † With settings and places more suited to the time such as a courtyard, however using less common words such as greatest agitation to denote more of a tone of authenticity and demonical corpse (never referring the victors creation as a human or even some form of humanoid) standing for deeper emotions than just a monster. However that is not all that it requires for gothic writing, include the way that questions are presented â€Å"with infinite pains and care I had endeavoured to form? † which could be translated as I had work hard to form. I recommend therefore that you must really acquaint yourself with the general genre if you have not already and I recommend both Frankenstein and The Castle of Otranto which both brilliant representations of not only language but the points that I have already mentioned. Finally I would sat that in order for you book to match that of Shelley’s you may want to include some issues surrounding ethical issues at the time, and as an example think of the issues surrounding the other title of Shelley’s novel being â€Å"The Modern Prometheus† this in the case of Frankenstein is the issues surrounding playing god. This brought about by greater scientific and medical advances in her time. You may use this to make your story to bring about a deeper meaning than that just of a ghost story. To conclude, I hope that the guidelines that I have provided will help you succeed in you overall goal of creating a true gothic novel. This can be easily achieved by following the simple process of metonymy of gloom, tragic females, tyrannical males, supernatural events, overwrought emotion and an ominous dream. It may seem like a daunting task however I will always offer more support and advice if you feel that you need it and I hope to read your novel and give my opinion on it, which I am sure will be great. Yours Sincerely Dr M. Yellehs   Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Mary Shelley section.

The Three Strangers By Thomas Hardy and A Vendetta By Guy De Maupassant Essays

The Three Strangers By Thomas Hardy and A Vendetta By Guy De Maupassant Essays The Three Strangers By Thomas Hardy and A Vendetta By Guy De Maupassant Essay The Three Strangers By Thomas Hardy and A Vendetta By Guy De Maupassant Essay Essay Topic: Literature The Stranger Both these stories build up mystery. However, because they are written in different ways, there is significant contrast in the way the two stories are built up. Hardys story is longer, and has much more detail than Maupassants. Hardys has more characters and there is a twist in the tale. Maupassants is simpler, to the point and only has one character. These differences in structure contribute to the contrasting styles in which the mystery is built up. The setting at the beginning of The Three Strangers, plays a big part in creating mystery. Thomas Hardy describes a lonely cottage (page 130) as solitary. The way he describes this leads the reader to think that if anything happens out there, no one would know about it. Hardys descriptive use of the weather when he says the level rainstorm (on page 131), creates an atmosphere that plays on the readers emotions. The setting for Maupassants story builds up mystery too. It opens with a horrific murder. On page 201, we are told that the victim was treacherously knifed. This is important, as straight away there is some action in it, which makes us wonder whats going to happen next. This is a clever way to build up mystery. Like Maupassants, Hardys story gets to the point almost straight away: an incident had occurred (page 133). This is mysterious, because it doesnt tell you what the incident was until a little bit later. This builds up suspension and mystery very well. As the first stranger ascends the hill, Hardy develops mystery by using nature. The time of day helps when on page 134, it says the time of full moon. The sense of mystery is developed further through this, as a full moon is often associated with mysterious events. The way the first stranger walks also brings out the mystery in him. It says on page 134 there was caution in it, referring to his walk. This makes us wonder why and leads the reader to think that the man is scared of something, mystery being built, as we dont as yet know what the danger is. On several occasions, Hardy refers to the first stranger as a solitary pedestrian. This adds to the mystery rather well because if one is alone, no one will know if something happens to you. Later, as he is about to enter the house, the first pedestrian is described to be mentally looking through the door (page 135). This shows that he might be uncomfortable with what the people inside might ask him. This is backed up by the quotation on page 135. The question of his entry. This argument could be reinforced by the quotation on page 136. His hat hung low over his head. It is evident that the stranger doesnt want to be recognised in the house. Overall, Hardy gives the impression to the reader that the man did not want to be recognised, and he did not want too many questions to be asked about him. This builds up suspension and mystery as it tells us that something is going on, and the man has a secret. In Maupassants story, there is also a secret. This secret is being revealed to us little by little, gradually telling us how the widow will carry out the vendetta. By doing this, he introduces the idea she has had. First, he tells us that there was nothing else on her mind but this. On page 202, it tells you she had no rest. This shows she was determined to carry out the vendetta, but it seems she didnt know how to go about it. Next, he tells us that she has decided what to do. On page 202, it reads inspiration. We now know that she has decided what she is going to do, however, the reader has not been informed what it is and still, Maupassant gives the pieces little by little. The story continues and we finally get to know what is going to happen on page 203, when it says the dog tore the face to pieces. This is somewhat different to the way Hardy develops the plot. Hardy draws it out even more, and I think this helped Hardys story immensely with the build up of tension and mystery. Once the second stranger is inside, and the people at the party are asking about the strangers professions, the first stranger does not seem to be too pleased to be asked about it. It seems at first that he is keen to let everyone know what he is when he says very quickly and firmly Im a wheelwright. However, it appears that he is feeling a little too keen, especially as when the hedge carpenter says you can tell a mans profession by his hands, the first man instinctively sought the shade (page 142). All this shows that he is not telling the truth about his profession. This also adds to the mystery of the story, and again, it makes the reader wonder why the man is so secretive about himself, and why he would lie about his profession. In Maupassants story, there is a level of predictability regarding what is going to happen when it reads, on page 203; reduced the throat to ribbons. Before this, though, the clues are introduced very gradually. This also shows the determination and intelligence of the old woman. Usually a plot like this would be very well planned-out. However, it says that she had a sudden inspiration (page 202). This tells you that the woman is not a gentle, soft woman, or not in this case, at least. This is because she is so determined to do what she has to do, since it is what she has believed in throughout her whole life. Page 202 also says that the inspiration was a fierce vindictive one. The woman had forced herself to be less shy and timid, especially to be able to carry out the vendetta on her sons behalf. This builds up mystery well, as it means that the woman could be unpredictable as she is not her usual self. Hardy also uses this method in his story. He does not disclose to us the next mystery that is about to arise. The mystery is what the second stranger does for a living. There are clues scattered about when he talks. For example, on page 138, it says not a face without power. This gives the impression, that at least he is a boss of some kind or in charge of something. He was in fact, in charge of something, that thing being other peoples lives. Something that could put you off track however, is the second strangers kindness. On page 140, he says relieve the needy. You dont really expect an executioner to help the needy, as if he didnt kill people every week, so this is a clever way to draw out the little mystery. Later on, when asked about his occupation, the second stranger says I leave a mark upon my customers (page 142). This is again a clue to the strangers profession. Finally, in the second verse of his song, he gives his final clue. A post whereon to swing (page 143). The post is the hanging pole, and they are swinging because of the rope holding them up by their necks. I think Hardy has used this riddle well, for as well as leaving the readers to unfold it themselves, he has placed into their minds the question what will this man have to do with the rest of the story? It was clever to use this riddle, as it builds such great suspense, that mystery is built up immensely in this part of the story. The third stranger comes in and flees so suddenly, that it is obvious that there is significance in the way he does so. It must provide a vital clue to the story. After he has fled, the party in the cottage wonder why he did so, which is what the reader is intended to wonder too! When they hear the gunshot, and suspect what this man might have done, the story starts to unfold. After they have thought about it for a while, and heard the shots going off at regular intervals, it says their suspicions became a certainty (page 146). After they supposedly become certain of their suspicions, the second stranger puts himself in charge of drawing up a plan. This plan consists of some danger. This also excites the reader, making him wonder whats to come. On page 147, the constable says, staves and pitchforks. This shows that Hardy is developing a sense of danger, which helps the build up of mystery in the story. On page 148, the first and second strangers are back in the cottage. They seem very confident of the others, as they say theyll have him. Although they seem confident, the reader is not supposed to be so sure. This helps greatly in the mystery development, as it helps to form suspense. Hardy has used this well, as when the reader finds out the whole thing was a red herring, he is excited by what the true answer is. Red herrings are important for mystery stories because they excite the reader. The example in Hardys story is used very well. Maupassant does not have a red herring in his story. This is makes it is shorter and more to the point. Maupassant finishes his story how he started it: with a horrific murder. On page 204, it says the dog seized his throat. It also says that when the dog was finished, Nicolas Ravolati writhed. This shows that the death was a very painful one. Of course, it seems that the woman has got away with it. However that is what Nicolas thought. If the story had continued, we might have learnt that the old lady herself had been murdered in a vendetta for his life. In leaving the ending open, Maupassant is still building the sense of mystery even though the text has concluded! At the end of Hardys story, when he writes the explanation, he tries to make it really interesting for the reader. First, before the real answer is explained, the magistrate says havent you got the man after all? (Page 151)? This makes the reader wonder who the man really is, and why the third stranger ran away if he is not the man. Gradually, from here on, Hardy explains the real answers to these questions. First the third stranger says the condemned man is my brother (page 151). This is the first thing that is revealed. Still, though most of the questions remain. The next revelation is the real identity of the criminal. On page 151, the third stranger says my brother was in the chimney corner. This is the mystery solved, and Hardy has done this in a very shrewd way. He has kept readers guessing to the last second. Hardys explanation summed up the whole story well, and explained the puzzle. This enthrals the reader and the whole story has built up the sense of mystery very well. I noticed that both stories used isolation as a way to build up mystery. Hardy used it as in the isolation of the little cottage, whereas, Maupassant used it as in the isolation of the widow. On page 201, it says the widow refused to let anyone stay. The authors are building up mystery in the same way, but in a different context. I can now say that I immensely enjoyed reading both of these stories. They had both contrasts and comparisons, but more contrasts. The two stories built up mystery very well, but they built it up in completely different ways. I think this is because both authors were not setting out to write the same kind of story. I personally preferred Hardys story. I think this is because it built up mystery in a very shrewd way so that I was guessing what the answer would be right until the very end. One part that I did enjoy greatly, however, was the red herring. I found this to be a very clever way of putting readers off course from the real answer, as it did to me. I did enjoy Maupassants story as well, but I didnt find it as mysterious as Hardys. In conclusion, I would like to say that I think both stories built up mystery well, but I think Hardys built it up to a greater effect.

Why Dogs Are Better Than Cats Essays

Why Dogs Are Better Than Cats Essays Why Dogs Are Better Than Cats Paper Why Dogs Are Better Than Cats Paper Why Dogs Are Better Than Cats I think dogs are better than cats for many reasons. I’m sure it is not without reason that dogs are called â€Å"man’s best friend. † They are loyal, obedient, and also protective. Even if their attempts at protection are sometimes unnecessary, at least they try. On one occasion while our family was setting off various fireworks on the Fourth of July, we set off a ground bloom. A ground bloom is basically a firework that spins around on the ground spewing fire in such a way as to look like a flower. Murphy, our terrier, assumed that we had fallen prey to some unknown creature of the night. He attempted to bite the thing, only to be promptly â€Å"bitten† back. Undaunted, he charged in again with the same painful result. One of us was then able to grab onto a very bewildered Murphy until the firework died. Murphy came out of the ordeal with a slightly singed muzzle and a better understanding why not to play with fire. This is more than can be said for cats, which don’t care one iota whether you live or die, so long as they have premium kitty food and a plush velvet cushion for their beauty sleep. Our own cat would rather (and often does) sit out in the rain rather then come into the house through the dog door. Cats seem to think that they’re a superior species who deserve the very best treatment, and should never associate with other animals of a lower status. They also need to learn to toughen up a little bit. Everything they have has to be soft and fuzzy or extra chewy, ensuring that they exert as little life energy as possible. At times they don’t seem to be much more than small and furry sloths. Cats have no concern for the well-being or comfort of fellow creatures, and will not hesitate to take advantage of other weaker or kinder-hearted animals. If one of their worldly comforts is compromised in any way, they become very moody and go off to sulk until the situation is resolved. An animal with such drastic and sudden attitude changes is certainly not going to be the best pet in the world, although they may very possibly be the worst. They are also terribly ungrateful, showing no thankfulness whatsoever if they are given special treatment of some sort. They just generally assume that any special treatment is nothing more than what they deserve. Cats are overly independent as well, and enjoy pretending that they don’t need you or anyone else. Cats should definitely not be considered your best friend. For a while, our cat’s bed was a soft towel folded up on top of the nice warm hot water heater which suited her just fine until she learned that the dog had a cushion to sleep on. So whenever she had the chance, she kicked the dog off of his cushion and used it herself. We eventually decided to fix the problem by getting the dog another cushion and giving the cat his old one. The new cushion was slightly larger than the old one, which was just as well since it fit him better. The slight change in size however, did not go unnoticed by the cat, who decided that she would share with the dog and give him back his old cushion. Now the dog sleeps in the nice warm house on his large plush cushion, and the cat sleeps in the back room on her small cushion. Dogs’ eagerness to please their masters is also a commendable trait which cats simply don’t have. Without this, it would be very difficult to train dogs for the many jobs they now hold, from aiding law enforcement personnel and herding sheep, to seeing-eye dogs and even helping exterminators locate hard-to-find infestations. Cats on the other hand are difficult to train, and once trained, will rarely perform the task on command, preferring to sleep instead. Murphy certainly wouldn’t be the type of dog used for most jobs, but he’s demonstrated his ability to be trained in other ways. When I decided that I would teach him to beg, I only had to put him through the motions for around 20 minutes each day, and he learned in about three days. He learned to roll over in a similar amount of time. Now he’s even learning to walk on his hind legs! I tried to teach the cat to beg for the fun of it, but she just flopped around when I tried to hold her up, and went back to her bed as soon as I let go. She showed no talent at all as far as willingness or comprehension of what I wanted her to do. Murphy just kept trying until he hit on the right thing, and then caught on almost immediately. Dogs have also performed many heroic deeds from warning a sleeping family of a house fire to fighting to the death to protect their master. (Whoever heard of a heroic cat? ) This is why I think dogs are better than cats.